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Generative AI and the Risks to the Banks

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November 13, 2023

Generative AI and the Risks to the Banks

Gen AI is full of promises, and there is no doubt that it can deliver on those promises. For example, McKinsey notes that Generative AI can add up to $200 bn to the banking sectors. Analysing the implications of Generative AI in the banking sector more deeply, it is bound to change work conditions and routines. For example, the job of analysts of corporate actions can be handed over to Generative AI and LLM. Generative AI can enable banks to automate the process of modelling, data analysis, and even data generation.

Unique Case of Banks and Client Relationship

Each transaction in the bank represents a unique exchange based on bespoke negotiations, principal amount, and interest rates. However, this exchange between banks and their clients is not interpersonal, but it’s an “A-Personal” relationship. It depends on the lending model that requires the input of data. Therefore, banks need to ensure that they exhibit great responsibility when implementing AI in their relationship with their clients.

UK Conference of AI and Generative AI
The Prime Minister’s desire to position the UK as a world leader in artificial intelligence (AI) comes a little too late. As regulating such tools requires strong IT infrastructure and skills abundance, the UK currently lacks in both areas. Some would argue that nations such as China or the USA are not ahead of us in the game, and what the UK needs is to catch up. In My opinion, the recent attempt by the UK to host a conference on AI is an attempt to self-promote ourselves as global leaders and seems a unilateral attempt to take the leadership of the processes of managing AI. However, what the UK needs is to train people and induce schools and universities to adopt maths, programming, and algorithmic thinking as compulsory subjects rather than electives. Only then can we take a lead role in governing AI.

Why be cautious with Generative AI adaption

It can be easy to get carried away with the benefits of this, as it is much easier to envisage. For example, McKinsey’s report fails to mention the reputational and litigation costs if the models based on Generative AI suffer from compliance failures. There are several reasons for which we should be cautious when adopting Generative AI. A few of the challenges are as follows:

The challenge is that the efficiency gained from deploying Generative AI may become a disaster if the analysts are not appropriately trained in prompt engendering, Machine Learning, and Data skills. It may result in high turnover and low worker morale. A sector that highly depends on its relationship management cannot afford to operate with a demotivated staff.
Furthermore, generative AI can facilitate crime, namely fraud and money laundering, which may explain why banks are reluctant to embrace the technology. Generative AI may enable clients to create a fictitious financial history and records. Bogus firms can create fictional digital and paper trails, including fake websites. This can trick the banks into lending money to fake companies or even ignore crimes such as money laundering or terror financing.
The bank-client relationship is the interaction between “the internal model” and “the subject (customer) of the model”. Therefore, the outcome is heavily dependent on the input or, in other words, the data that is used to train and test the model.
Staff Training is also a big challenge when adopting generative AI in banks, as efficiency may be lost if the new technology makes employees feel demotivated and dull. It requires comprehensive training, prompt engineering, Machine Learning, and Data skills. It may result in high turnover and low worker morale. A sector that highly depends on its relationship management cannot afford to operate with a demotivated staff.

Banks in the Money Puzzle

Finance

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed

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November 13, 2023

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The story of banking and Money is inextricably linked. As money became complex, banks and their activities followed suit. Banks possess a pivotal place in the evolution of money. They have evolved into such large systems that without their existence of money, and financial system is unimaginable. There are three other important factors in the evolution of Money: International Trade, Technology, and the movement of people. We will discuss these topics later on.

Modern Money and Banks

Modern money, or as we call it, “$”, “£”, “€”, or “¥”, represents a complex system of unit measurement, store of value, transfer of value, and prediction of value. As the currency system is very difficult, the platform [Banks] through which the system operates is also complicated. Banks enable people, organisations, and societies to easily transfer money from one party to another. However, one may wonder if the currencies are printed by central banks such as the Bank of England or the Federal Reserve Banks. Then, what is the role of the Bank? Nevertheless, the banks ensure the provision of money to everyone as we know and understand it. Banks over the years have acquired abilities such as:

Know all about individuals and organisations through collecting hard financial information about us.
Enjoy our trust as custodians of money. They look after the money of every member of the society as current cash, savings, or other deposits.
Lend to all deficit agents assuming responsibility for counterparty default.
Act as clearing and collection agents for every transaction taking place in the economy.

Are Banks important in the story of Money?

Money is measured as.
1. Monetary base: equals Money in Circulation + Banks’ Reserve held at the Central Bank.
2. M1: equals Coins + Currency + Demand Deposits + Travellers’ checks.
3. M2: equals M1 + Savings Deposits + Time Deposits + Certificates of deposit + Money Market Funds.
Therefore, if you look closely, the job of the central Bank almost finishes when they print the money. After that, the banks collect money from people and transmit it back and forth between people, firms, and even the central banks. Therefore, banks become an agency of money through which money is transferred and stored, creating new balances. Complex hmm! I bet it is.

History of Money tells us that the essence of money has always been the same, but it has always changed in its form, circulation, availability, accessibility, and underpinning value. From being arrows, sheep, and Yelps to gold, silver, and paper, the face of money may have changed the story is still the same. However, you may notice money in its early form did not require “an omnipotent” party such as banks to be a clearing agent. Who would like to be the custodian of “Sheep”, “arrows”, or “Grains”, or “metals including gold”. Such a party will always be at risk of theft and robbery.

However, money took more “Non-Perishable” and “Easily Mobile” forms such as paper. We witness the emergence of parties such as Goldsmiths and Eventually Bankers. These parties established a system of communication, recognition, and trust such that their written promissory notes and requests for balance transfer become unquestionable. Ordinary people and businesses who struggled to transfer money across cities, countries, and even parties can now obtain a letter of credit from such parties and convert it into money anywhere.

Plastic Money: Old wine, new Bottle

Credit and debit cards are nothing but a promissory note issued by a bank that the holder of these cards at the time and place of their choosing can access a pre-agreed amount of money (i.e., £1,200). However, depending upon the nature of the transaction, banks may act as a clearing agent, verification agent, balance provider, or payment infrastructure. Banks and credit card agencies run and operate the infrastructure underpinning this system, but how they function determines the availability, accessibility, and circulation of money in our modern society.

Banks and money are just Twin Siblings

Banks and money are twin siblings who do not live without each other. Now, let’s understand why this is so. Money in our modern society is a very agile commodity. It facilitates payments and transactions at an unprecedented speed and, infinitesimally, small values and spread worldwide. Therefore, banking must complement this new shape and form of The 24/7 Money. Therefore, banks are central to the story of Money; as money evolves into different forms, banks and financial services also develop to complement that shape. This evolution is so intertwined that distinguishing money from banking services often takes more work. I leave you with two questions:

1. When you borrow money from the Bank, do you get cash or just a bank account showing some balance?

2. What does a + or – balance mean on your bank account and credit card? I can tell you for sure that money is never negative.

Banks and Payment Technology

This new form requires banks to be giant technology firms that can facilitate payments and transactions whenever, wherever, and however, they are needed.

Initially, our payment relied heavily on Automated Clearing House (ACH) technology developed in 1974. This system was built on a time lag, where the transaction was batch-processed once daily; however, lately, it has been increased to three times daily. In these processes, transaction information is transmitted from originating parties to receiving parties through medium or Central banks or a clearing house. The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications (SWIFT) messaging system allows banks to facilitate transactions at the global level. It was established in 1973 to enable democratic nations to transmit money between themselves and allow the growth of international trade.

One common thing in both technologies is that they were designed to handle the money or, in other words, transactions made by people that are large in volume, low in frequency, and tolerant towards systemic lags. However, modern consumers view money as a unit of account transferable in small quantities to places it needs to be.

One can conclude that banks in the money puzzle are the “Invisible Hand” that helps and strives to make money available wherever and whenever we need it. They can do so because of their large balance sheets, centuries of established networks and trust.

References

Hill, J. (2018). Fintech and the remaking of financial institutions. Academic Press.
Cetorelli, N., Mandel, B. H., & Mollineaux, L. (2012). The evolution of banks and financial intermediation: Framing the analysis. Federal Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review, 18(2), 1-12.
Greenbaum, S. I., Thakor, A. V., & Boot, A. W. (2019). Contemporary financial intermediation. Academic press.
Cetorelli, N., McAndrews, J., & Traina, J. (2014). Evolution in bank complexity. Forthcoming Version of Evolution in Bank Complexity, Economic Policy Review, 20(2).

Lord Kelvin: Pioneering legacy of William Thomson in Physics

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Dr Vasos Pavlika

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November 13, 2023

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Lord Kelvin: Pioneering legacy of William Thomson in Physics

Introduction:

A towering figure in 19th-century physics and engineering, William Thomson—known as Lord Kelvin—made significant contributions that changed the field and set the stage for later breakthroughs. Born in Belfast, Ireland, on June 26, 1824, Thomson’s brilliant mind and creative ideas helped him rise to prominence as one of the most important scientists of his day.

Lord Kelvin:

Lord Kelvin was exalted in 1892, and we now honour him by naming the absolute temperature scale after him. Kelvin was a brilliant Mathematical Physicist from Belfast but went on to Cambridge and contributed to the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics. George Gabriel Stokes succeeded him as the president of the Royal Society. The Kelvin, Navier-Stokes, was studied during my PhD thesis. Navier was a renowned engineer from France, and his name appears on the Eiffel Tower as one of the 72 French giants. I was lucky enough to visit the tower and observe it in 2009. Other greats on the observatory include J. Fourier (1768-1830), whose work Kelvin was a great admirer of and a topic I am fortunate to teach at UCL.

The Caloric Theory Heat:

Kelvin disproved the caloric theory of heat. A post on the development of the periodic table by “Giants” such as Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) will have to wait for another day. The father of analytical chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier, introduced caloric to Science. Sadly, Antoine was beheaded during the French Revolution in 1794, and shortly after, my close friend Lagrange (1736–1813), whose role as a Lagrangian I also have the honour to discuss at UCL, lamented with these immortal words:

“It took them only an instant to cut off that head, and a hundred years may not produce another like it.”

Postulates:

Returning to Kelvin, he was not without his mistakes in predicting the age of our sun to be somewhere between 29 and 100 million years. Thanks to Herzberg and Russell’s work, Kelvin helped Science move past the aether concept. Giants seated on top of Giants atop Giants. A grand image emerges of the beauty of Science and Mathematics when looked at like this.

Spirit of Euclid:

Kelvin spoke to Michelson-Morley before their Nobel-winning experiment, which led to Einstein’s theory of relativity with the constant speed of light as a postulate. Euclid’s 13 books of the Elements provide a foundational method based on hypotheses. Newton was influenced by this work when he wrote the Principia, which experts described as being in the “spirit of Euclid.” Lord Kelvin’s contributions have laid the foundation for modern engineering and physics.

Conclusion:

Lord Kelvin’s contributions have laid the foundation for modern engineering and physics. In the rapidly industrialising 19th century, his work significantly impacted Science’s practical applications and advanced theoretical understanding. William Thomson left a lasting legacy now reflected in the ideas and innovations that form the basis of many modern science and technology aspects.

Joseph Fourier: Pioneering Mathematics of Heat and Transforms

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Syeda Umme Eman

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November 13, 2023

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Joseph Fourier: Pioneering Mathematics of Heat and Transforms

Introduction:

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the pioneering work of the brilliant French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier, whose scientific contributions will never be forgotten. I am very fortunate to be able to discuss Joseph Fourier’s (1768-1830) series at UCL. As with all techniques and ideas in Mathematics, one fully appreciates a “Giants” work only when one considers its proof, and the Fourier series is no exception. When I first saw the proof as a young undergraduate studying partial differential equations, I thought, “Wow, I understood that “, but my burning question was “, How did he know to commence like this?”

Zeta Function:

It immediately reminds me of a famous quote (which I read years ago but cannot recall the author) that I often use when I am lecturing which is:

“It is easy to follow the steps of genius if that genius shows us how to walk.”

This quote applies to Joseph’s work but also when I introduce some of Euler’s work, e.g. His derivation of the Zeta function or when I use the Cauchy integral formula or his residue theorems.

The Mathematical Theory of Heat:

Returning to Fourier, he is, of course, one of the 72 Great French men/women of Science on the Eifel tower, but Joseph was once part of an elite group of Mathematicians in France at the famed L’Ecole Polytechnique making it the epicentre of Mathematics in the world. Fourier introduced his theory on heat by extending the work of I. Forensic scientists frequently utilise Newton (1643–1727) and his law of cooling to pinpoint the exact moment of a homicide. Joseph created Dimensional Analysis, a technique to develop equations for physical phenomena. Of course, when the number of independent variables is more than three, one must use Buckingham’s Pi theorem and include a considerable amount of linear algebra to appreciate its potency. Still, it is certainly a topic I enjoy discussing at UCL.

Polytechnique:

Simultaneously, Others at the Polytechnique included J. Lagrange (1736-1813) and G. Monge (1746-1818). Even though the French had adopted Lagrange, he was, in fact, Italian (with the name Giuseppe Ludovico De la Grange, it would be difficult not to be Italian). Fourier introduced his theory on heat by extending the work of I.

Fourier Coefficient:

Joseph Fourier introduced the Fourier transform, expanding on his work with the Fourier series. This mathematical method generalises the Fourier series, which is popular in signal processing, image analysis, and other domains. A useful tool for comprehending the frequency content of signals is the Fourier transform, which breaks down a function into its component frequencies.

Conclusion:

Throughout history, many great mathematicians and scientists have been pawns of the military. Fourier and others helped improve weapons accuracy for Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and during the Manhattan Project. Fermi (1901-1954), R. Feynman (1918-1988), breaking Enigma (A. Turing (1912-1954) ), Germany’s nuclear research W. Heisenberg (1901-1976) is one of my old friends.

Digital Payments: A Paradigm Shift in the Way We Pay

Syeda Umme Eman

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November 13, 2023

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Digital Payments: A Paradigm Shift in the Way We Pay

Introduction:

The broad use of digital payments in recent years has fundamentally transformed the financial transactions landscape. As technology advances, more sensible, efficient, and secure digital alternatives progressively replace traditional payment methods. This article examines the development, advantages, difficulties, and potential future developments of digital payments in the contemporary world.

The Development of Online Payments

Since introducing credit cards and internet banking, digital payments have advanced significantly. Many digital payment methods are available today, from Bitcoin transactions to contactless cards and mobile wallets. These developments have sped up transactions and increased accessibility for a worldwide audience.

Benefits of Digital Payments

1. Convenience:

Digital payments‘ convenience is one of their main benefits. Users only need to click a few times on their smartphones or other digital devices to complete transactions at any time, from any location.

2. Speed:

Unlike traditional banking methods, which require protracted processing times, digital payments enable rapid transactions. This quickness is especially important in the quick-paced world of online and e-commerce.

3. Security:

Unlike traditional methods, digital payment systems are more secure because they frequently integrate sophisticated encryption and authentication mechanisms. Tokenization, two-factor authentication, and biometric authentication give financial transactions additional security layers.

4. Cost-Effectiveness:

Digital transactions can cut processing, printing, and shipping physical cash expenses. Both customers and businesses gain from this cost-effectiveness.

Challenges in the Digital Payments Landscape

Digital payments have many benefits, but before they are generally adopted, a few problems need to be fixed:

1. Security Concerns:

As digital transactions increase, so does the possibility of fraud and cyber threats. Maintaining strong security protocols is essential to gaining users’ trust.

2. Digital Divide:

The shift to digital payments requires access to the Internet and other forms of technology. Only some have equal access to these resources. Therefore, the digital gap continues to be a problem.

3. Legislative Obstacles:

The quick development of digital payments has surpassed the legislative frameworks in many places. Clear and adaptable policies are essential to fostering a secure and just digital payments ecosystem.

4. User Education:

Many people might need to know or comprehend digital payment possibilities, particularly in less technologically sophisticated areas. Comprehensive user education is crucial to ensuring widespread adoption.

Future Trends and Innovations

Digital payments have a bright future ahead of them. A few new developments and trends are as follows:

Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs):

Several nations are investigating or putting into practice the issuance of their digital currencies by central banks. CBDCs could alter the global financial environment.

Blockchain Technology and Cryptocurrencies:

These technologies are becoming increasingly popular because they provide safe, decentralized alternatives to conventional payment methods.

Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI):

AI is improving digital payment systems’ security and effectiveness in a big way. Real-time fraud detection and prevention is possible with machine learning algorithms.

Internet of Things (IoT) Payments:

As devices become more connected, IoT payments are increasing. Convenient transactions can be facilitated by smart gadgets, improving daily living.

Conclusion:

With their unparalleled speed, ease, and security, digital payments have radically changed how we conduct financial transactions. Even though there are still obstacles, continuous advancements and security measures are opening the door to a more digitally integrated and inclusive global economy. As technology advances, digital payments should play an increasingly significant role in shaping the finance path.

Gravity and Genius: The Life and Work of Isaac Newton

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Dr Vasos Pavlika

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November 12, 2023

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Gravity and Genius: The Life and Work of Isaac Newton

Introduction:

Redefining our view of the natural world was Sir Isaac Newton, a towering figure in the history of Science. Newton, born in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England, on January 4, 1643, made significant contributions to physics, mathematics, and astronomy that built the groundwork for contemporary Science. His seminal work, best represented by his laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, still influences modern scientific research and technological development.

Newton’s Contribution to Physics and Mathematics:

Newton holds a very unique position in the history of Mathematics and Physics, as he appears arguably 2nd in the list of great Mathematician (behind the Prince himself, J.C.F. Gauss (1777-1855)) and second in the list on great Physicists (behind Einstein (1879-1955)) whereas Gauss would be low down in the list of great Physicists (he does have a law of electrostatics that is now inducted in the James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) hall of fame as one of his immortal equations and Einstein would not appear in the Mathematics list at all.

Law of Viscosity:

Newton has so many laws that one has to say Newton’s law of cooling, viscosity, and motion. One must be careful, however, as he did sit on the shoulders of “Giants” such as Aristotle (384-322BCE). What might not be so well known is that his famous quote (1675):

“What Des-Cartes did was a good step. You (Hooke) have added much in several ways, & especially in taking the colours of thin plates into philosophical consideration. If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.” It was an insult to Robert Hooke (1635-1703) as Robert was short and had a hunchback. Hooke is one of my heroes, and I hope to write about him, but this post is for Isaac.

Newton with Leibniz:

Sir Issac Newton co-created Calculus with Leibniz, but his notation was not the best. This led to a rise of “Giants” of Mathematics in Europe who used the Leibnizian notation. In contrast, Newton’s notation used in the UK had fewer “Giants” (Maclaurin and Taylor being his only contemporaries).

Newton was evil and had two nervous breakdowns in his life; Huygens (1629-1695) claims that one was due to overwork; the other was due to the failed relationship that Newton had with a Swiss Mathematician Nicolas Fatio De Duillier (1664-1753).

Newton Famous Books:

Issac Newton penned arguably the most famous book in Science: the Principia in 1687, and in my house, I have ten framed posters from the History of Science Museum commemorating this publication; I have, of course, seen the real thing at the Wren library. This book was financed by Halley (1656-1742). Isaac Newton borrowed the axiomatic approach of Euclid’s Elements, which Einstein also adopted. Isaac himself then spawned many duplications of Principias by other Giants of Science (Charles Lyell (1797-1875) geology, B.Russell (1872-1970) Mathematics, Philosophy).

Conclusion:

In conclusion, Sir Isaac Newton left an immense and lasting scientific legacy. He is regarded as one of the greatest scientific brains in history because of his exacting techniques, curious attitude, and ground-breaking findings. We are indebted to the man who established the groundwork for the scientific revolution as we explore the wonders of the cosmos.

Beyond the Stars: Marvels of Space Missions and Exploration

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Syeda Umme Eman

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November 12, 2023

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Beyond the Stars: Marvels of Space Missions and Exploration

Introduction:

Humanity has always been captivated by the vastness of space, which calls us to investigate its secrets and uncover its mysteries. Space exploration and missions have been essential in helping us learn more about the universe over time. These missions, which have explored beyond our solar system and probed nearby planets, have increased our understanding of science and spurred technical developments that help support life on Earth. This article explores the importance of space missions and the amazing findings they have produced.

Historical Perspective:

The first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. This historic event heralded the beginning of space exploration. This incident ignited the space race between superpowers and signalled the start of the space era. NASA’s Apollo space missions in the 1960s and 1970s made history by successfully landing people on the moon, demonstrating the promise of human space travel.

Planetary Exploration:

Robotic missions have been crucial in helping us solve the mystery surrounding our nearby planets. Mars rover missions like Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity have shed light on the Martian terrain and the potential existence of ancient microorganisms. Venus missions like the European Space Agency’s Venus Express and NASA’s Magellan have investigated the planet’s rich atmosphere.

Interplanetary Travel:

Space governments and private companies are focusing on interstellar exploration as our understanding of the solar system expands. Since its launch in the late 1970s, the Voyager spacecraft has travelled beyond our solar system and collected information about the heliosphere and outer planets. Innovative programmes like the Starshot project seek to send small probes to neighbouring star systems in hopes of transforming our knowledge of the universe.

Working Together Internationally:

Global space organizations are combining their resources and knowledge in a more cooperative effort to explore space. An example of multinational cooperation in space is the multinational Space Station (ISS). It promotes scientific inquiry and technical advancement by acting as a laboratory for studying microgravity and space environments.

Technological Progress:

Space missions spur technical advancement, which results in offshoot technologies with uses on Earth. The advantages of space travel go well beyond the boundaries of our world, including improvements in medicine, environmental monitoring, and communication technologies. A few instances of how space missions advance technology include creating lighter materials, sophisticated robotics, and better satellite communication.

Obstacles and Potential Futures:

There are still difficulties in space exploration despite amazing advancements. Challenges in space exploration include vast distances, harsh environments, and the need for sustainable solutions. Private space enterprises, renewed interest in lunar research, and ambitious goals for Mars colonization signal a promising future for space exploration.

Conclusion:

Space travel and missions fascinate us by pushing the limits of technology and human knowledge. Scientists, engineers, and space organizations worldwide ensure access to the last frontier as we gaze into the skies. In addition to deepening our knowledge of the universe, space exploration continues to advance technologies that support life on Earth. Humanity’s search for answers to the universe’s big questions remains fueled by space exploration’s importance and inspiration.

James Clerk Maxwell: Discovery of the Electromagnetic Force

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Dr Vasos Pavlika

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November 11, 2023

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James Clerk Maxwell: Discovery of the Electromagnetic Force

Discovering Electromagnetic Force

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), the Trinity College Cambridge Senior Wrangler, gave the equations below and thus simultaneously combined two of the forces of Physics, becoming the electromagnetic force (the other forces being the strong force, the weak force, and the gravitational force). In fact, Maxwell derived 20 equations in his original treatise, but it was Heaviside (1850-1925) who reduced them to the four which he studied as a UG physics student. James, using his equations, calculated that the speed of an electromagnetic field was almost that of the speed of light; realising the connection, he went on to show that one can arrive at the wave equation when one manipulates his equations.

Maxwell equations Electrodynamics;

∇.D = ρ
∇.B = 0
∇xE = -∂B/∂t
∇xH = J +∂D/∂t

Teaching Social Scientists

I recall that before embarking on a teaching trajectory where I predominantly taught Mathematics and Statistics to Social Scientists, I was asked in an interview to discuss statistics with the chair of the panel, well my training is in Mathematics and Physics so I was only aware of the Maxwell-Boltzmann, Fermi–Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics (at the time of course) so when I was asked about the chi-squared distribution and the F distribution etc I sadly lost my way (things are different now) but fortunately I was still given the post and I was gently asked to brush up on my statistics at the end of the meeting.

Returning to James, he like I.Newton (1643-1727), was one of two of Einstein’s friends and one can no doubt recall that Newton too had friends from the past with:

“Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my greatest friend is truth.” I.Newton.

But this is not my favourite Newton quote: that prize goes to

“Hypotheses non fingo (“I frame no hypotheses”), which can be found in the Principia in which Newton pre-empts the question, “what causes the gravitational force at a distance?” by saying the above, he implied that we know how to calculate this force, but we don’t know what causes it. We had to wait for Einstein to give us this understanding with his bending of space-time, but that is for another day.

Revolutionizing Thermodynamics

Regrettably, James, like his mother, died of stomach cancer far too early; however, Maxwell did groundbreaking work in thermodynamics, which led to what we call the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, and here I have to pause and mention the tortured soul L. Boltzmann (1844-1906) who took his life (by hanging) when his work was ridiculed and only a week later his work was verified. Such events are not uncommon in Science and Mathematics; the great set theorist G. Cantor (1845-1918), for example, was similarly persecuted for his visionary and revolutionary work, suffering bouts of depression and E.Galois (1811-1832) who went to his own death (as a dual) after failing his second entrance exam at the L’Ecole Polytechnique because his examiners could not comprehend his amazing ideas.

Alas, my meandering discussion means, once again, I have to stop abruptly.

Unveiling Solar Superstorms: Energy and Impact on Earth

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Syeda Umme Eman

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November 11, 2023

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Unveiling Solar Superstorms: Energy and Impact on Earth

Introduction:

Solar superstorms, sometimes called solar storms or space weather events, are extremely strong solar disturbances that can greatly impact Earth’s technological infrastructure. Strong energy eruptions known as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are released during these storms. These events can affect our planet’s magnetosphere and cause disruptions to various technologies. Comprehending the characteristics of solar superstorms is essential in formulating tactics to alleviate their possible consequences.

Sun Superstorm Elements:

1. Solar Flares:

Solar flares are sudden, intense bursts of energy that radiate electromagnetic radiation anywhere from radio waves to X-rays from the sun’s surface. Depending on how much energy they produce, these eruptions can be divided into several groups, from weak C-class flares to strong X-class flares.

2. Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs):

Coronal mass ejections, or CMEs, are large-scale outbursts of solar wind and magnetic fields that rise above the solar corona or are ejected into space. When these charged particles come into contact with the Earth’s magnetic field, they can cause geomagnetic storms.

Impacts on Earth:

1. Power Grids:

The Earth’s magnetic field protects us from the damaging effects of solar radiation. On the other hand, the heightened solar activity during a solar superstorm can cause strong electrical currents to arise in the Earth’s atmosphere. These currents can enter electrical networks, resulting in voltage instability and widespread blackouts in the worst situations.

2. Satellite Communication and Navigation:

Radio signal interference caused by solar storms can impact systems that rely on satellite communication and navigation. This disruption could impact numerous industries, such as global positioning systems (GPS), aviation, and maritime navigation.

3. Auroras:

Solar superstorms improve the aurora near the polar areas, although they do not pose a direct hazard. Although striking to look at, the enhanced geomagnetic activity may have an impact on local radio communications and navigation systems.

Preparedness and Mitigation:

1. Early Warning Systems:

Predicting possible solar superstorms requires tracking the sun’s activities. Cutting-edge space weather forecasting systems can issue early alerts, enabling the taking of preventative action.

2. Reinforcement of Infrastructure:

One of the most important things to do is to fortify communication and electricity grids against solar storm damage. Installing gadgets that instantly disconnect delicate components during geomagnetic storms can prevent widespread damage.

3. Working Together Internationally:

International cooperation is essential for exchanging information, research, and resources because solar superstorms exist worldwide. More reliable monitoring systems and well-coordinated reactions to possible threats can result from collaborative efforts.

Conclusion:

Solar superstorms are an interesting and potentially disruptive feature of our sun’s behaviour. We must comprehend and prepare for the effects of these solar occurrences as our reliance on technology grows. Research, technology, and international cooperation can lessen the risks associated with solar superstorms and make our increasingly interconnected world more robust.

Arthur Eddington: Pioneering Astrophysicist and Relativity Advocate

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Dr Vasos Pavlika

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November 11, 2023

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Arthur Eddington: Pioneering Astrophysicist and Relativity Advocate

Introduction:

Sir Arthur Eddington (1882-1944) was trained in the three disciplines I have studied: Mathematics, Physics and Astronomy. I have, of course, taken detours in my studies, but I have always remained faithful to this trinity of subjects whilst becoming a student of all the Sciences.

Nuclear Fusion of Hydrogen into Helium:

Scholars claim that Arthur explained the energy-creating process within stars before any of his peers (i.e., the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium). Arthur was said to be Einstein’s Champion, and staying with Albert, Arthur was one of the first to demonstrate comprehension of Einstein’s theories on relativity. Others who showed such abilities include Max Born (1882-1970) and Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909). Of course, since then, many generations of scientists have advanced Albert’s ideas, perhaps none more so than Sir Roger Penrose (1931-), who I recently heard about during an online course in August 2021 at the University of Arizona (I to add that Roger was an undergraduate at UCL so every day I can walk in the footsteps of a “Giant”).

General Theory of Relativity:

Arthur was appointed Astronomer Royal and is linked to the event that toppled Newton’s gravitational theory. Arthur, who became Astronomer Royal, was involved in toppling Newton’s theory of gravity. Later, Einstein’s theory of gravity—which we now refer to as the General Theory of Relativity—replaced Isaac’s hypothesis. Thus, what did Arthur do? During a solar eclipse, Arthur measured the position of stars and compared their locations before the eclipse.

Einstein’s and Newton’s Theories:

According to the theories proposed by Einstein and Newton, this light would experience a bending effect. The stars would appear at a slightly different location. The presence of a big object causes this location discrepancy. In this example, our sun can distort light. Albert’s calculations were more accurate than Isaac’s in predicting the bending or angle of an arc. Therefore, during the solar eclipse on 29 May 1919 (just after the 1st world war with Germany), Arthur was responsible for the toppling of Newton’s theory, which had sat on the high table of Physics since 1687 and made room for the hypothesis of a German-born Jew.

One of Arthur’s most famous quotes is:

“The law that entropy always increases holds, I think, the supreme position among the laws of Nature. If someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe disagrees with Maxwell’s equations – then so much the worse for Maxwell’s equations if it is found to be contradicted by observation – well, these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is against the Second Law of Thermodynamics, then I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation.”

Conclusion:

Sir Arthur Eddington made groundbreaking contributions to astronomy, supported Einstein’s theories, and excelled at explaining difficult concepts, cementing his reputation as a pivotal scientific figure.

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