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First Computer Programmer: Ada Lovelace Invention in technology

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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First Computer Programmer: Ada Lovelace Invention in technology

Introduction:

An international celebration of women in science and technology! English Mathematician Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) is widely considered the world’s first computer programmer for her invention of the computer algorithm. Born in 1815 to the poet Lord Byron and Anne Isabella Byron, Lovelace’s Mathematical talents led to an ongoing collaboration with Mathematician Charles Babbage, who called Lovelace the “Enchantress of Numbers.”

Mathematician Professor:

Charles Babbage (1791-1871) was a Lucasian professor of Mathematics, a Chair once helped by Isaac Newton (1643-1727), James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), Paul Dirac (1902-1984) and more recently by Stephen Hawking (1914-2018). I want to relay two little anecdotes regarding these “Giants”.These Giants played a vital role in many fields of science and technology.

Newton:

The first is about Newton. Newton was a terrible teacher during his time at Trinity College Cambridge. He often had his lectures independently with no one in attendance, despite his contract requiring him to deliver 4 hours of teaching per term. Newton was a terrible teacher during his time at Trinity College Cambridge. He often had his lectures independently with no one in attendance, despite his contract requiring him to deliver 4 hours of teaching per term. Scholars suggest he was a strange man, placing pins in his eyes to test his pain threshold. Newton played a vital role in many inventions of technology.

Charles:

After Newton, there were only a few notable mathematicians in the UK for the next 150 years, while the continent saw a surge of great mathematicians. This has been attributed to the UK’s adherence to Newtonian notation of the derivative. Ada and Charles put their efforts into inventing a computer algorithm. proramIn Europe, Leibniz’s notation of dy/dx was commonly used, and it was particularly useful for integration purposes. Babbage brought back the textbook of Sylvestre Lacroix in Mathematics from Paris, which introduced the notes used globally for Calculus. Hence, the UK schools of Applied Mathematics caught up with Europe. Charles Babbage, who invented the first computer, evolved the history of technology.

Conclusion:

Returning to Ada, this was such a great day for Computer Science before the epoch-making contribution of Alan Turing (1912-1954). Ada Lovelace Day celebrates women in STEM and inspires future generations to pursue these fields. It supports gatherings, discussions, and initiatives that advance gender inclusivity and diversity in the STEM fields. The celebration may include panel discussions, workshops, presentations by women in STEM, and networking opportunities. It highlights women’s achievements in various STEM fields.

Srinivasa Ramanujan: A Giant of the Number Theory

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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Srinivasa Ramanujan: A Giant of the Number Theory

Self-Taught Number Theorist

The Indian Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920) “Giant” of number theory, the self-taught Mathematician. There have been other such giants who displayed similar prowess, for example, the polymath John Von Neumann (1903-1957), who is responsible for developing the stored program concept of computer science and who by the age of fourteen was fluent in nine languages and who was part of the elite team assembled at Los Alamos, New Mexico during the so-called Manhattan Project to develop the A-bomb before Nazi Germany could during WWII. Other illustrious participants were Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), half of the Fermi-Dirac statistics, and Richard Feynman (1918-1988), the Nobel prize-winning MIT “Giant” of theoretical Physics for his work in QED. Richard by the way, was given the role of “number cruncher”, no mean achievement when one sees the list of Physicists present.

It is a who’s-who of Physics comparable to the group assembled at the 5th Solvay conference, which included Albert Einstein (1879-1955), Niels Bohr (1885-1962) and the two-time Nobel Laureate Marie Curie (1867-1934), amongst others.

The ‘Trivial’ Equation

Ramanujan worked with G.H. Hardy (1887-1947), I often relay a little anecdote about him to my students at UCL that my late PhD supervisor told me (may he rest in peace). It goes something like this:

Hardy (the great Trinity College Pure Mathematician) and author of A Mathematician’s Apology, which I highly recommend, walks into the lecture theatre at Trinity and writes an equation on the board. Hardy looks at the equation intensely and scratches his head, addressing the class, “This equation is trivial.” he looks at the equation again, rather worried and perplexed, then stares at the students and then stares back at the equation and then back to the students getting concerned about his claim. He then storms out of the lecture room to his office to verify the proof. He returns 45 minutes later with the immortal words, “Yes, it is trivial”.

Srinivasa Defied Limits

Returning to Srinivasa, there is so much one could write about him, but I will consider one example: he was shown how to solve cubic equations in 1902 and then went on to develop his method to solve the quartic, of course, he tried to develop methods for solving the general quintic by radicals but as we all no doubt know this was shown not to be invertible by the revolutionary renegade Evariste Galois (1811-1832).

The Profound Impact of Ramanujan


Hardy described his association with Ramanujan as the most prolific of his life. Ramanujan’s masterpiece can be found in the Wren digital library today, comparable to Newton’s Principia (which I have in my office at UCL given to me by one of my students) or Euclid’s Elements, which I have at home or Gauss’ Disquisitiones Arithmeticae which again I have at home. What is wonderful about these little posts is that one can drift off onto so many tangents and still find a “turning point” and return to the main protagonist of the discussion.

Investment and Portfolio Management: scenario for Building Wealth

Syeda Umme Eman
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Investment and Portfolio Management: scenario for Building Wealth

Introduction:

Investment and portfolio management are crucial in achieving long-term financial goals and building wealth. Whether you are an individual looking to secure your financial future or a professional managing funds for clients, understanding the principles of investment and portfolio management is essential. This article will explore key concepts, strategies, and best practices for successful investment and portfolio management.

Understanding Investment:

A. Investment Definition

Investing is the process of assigning resources, most often money, with the hope of making profits or returns over time. Investing options include stocks, bonds, mutual funds, property, commodities, etc.

B. Hazard and Gain

In investing, the connection between risk and return is essential. Generally speaking, higher degrees of risk are linked to larger potential rewards.

C. Goals for Investing:

Objectives range from revenue production to wealth accumulation or capital preservation, contingent on personal circumstances and preferences.

Investing Strategies:

A. Long-term vs. Short-term Investing

  • Investing long-term means keeping assets longer, usually five years or longer, to take advantage of compound interest.
  • Making money on market swings in a shorter time is the main goal of short-term investment.

B.Value vs. Growth Investing

  • Finding cheap assets with long-term growth potential is the main goal of value investing.
  • Growth investment focuses on businesses that have significant room for expansion and are frequently valued higher.

C. Passive vs. Active Investing

  • Purchasing and maintaining a diverse portfolio to mirror the performance of a specific market index is known as passive investing.
  • Active investing is more hands-on management to use analysis and research to outperform the market.

D. Diversification

  • Investing broadly across a range of sectors and assets can help lower risk. Diversification mitigates the effects of a single investment performing poorly.

Diversification’s Significance:

A. Mitigation of Risk

By distributing risk, diversification ensures that possible gains in one asset class offset any declines in another. It can assist in keeping a portfolio stable amid erratic market circumstances.

B. Optimising Profits

Diversification enables investors to pursue larger returns while limiting risk to a manageable level, even while it doesn’t completely remove risk.

Observation and Evaluation:

A. Frequent Evaluation

  • It is imperative to conduct regular evaluations of the portfolio’s performance and congruence with financial objectives.
  • Maintaining the intended asset allocation may require rebalancing.

B. Efficient Taxation

  • Maximising after-tax returns can be achieved by utilising tax-advantaged accounts and tax-efficient investment strategies.

Risk Assessment in Portfolio Management:

A. Risk Types

Risk comes in different forms: market risk, which is the swings in the market as a whole; credit risk, which is the possibility of a borrower defaulting); and liquidity risk, which is the challenge of selling an asset without suffering a large loss.

B. Reevaluation of Risk Tolerance

It is imperative to regularly reevaluate one’s risk tolerance because one’s financial circumstances and objectives may change over time.

C. Balance of Risk and Return

Investors need to weigh their willingness to take on risk against their desire for larger profits. Building and managing a portfolio requires an understanding of this trade-off.

Conclusion:

The management of investments and portfolios is essential to financial success. Professionals and individuals can make wise judgements to meet their financial goals by knowing the concepts, tactics, and risks related to investing. Remember that investing is a long-term process that can lead to wealth creation and financial security. A well-built, diversified portfolio can assist in navigating the market’s ups and downs.

Funding Future: Innovative Financing for Global Entrepreneurs

Syeda Umme Eman
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Funding Future: Innovative Financing for Global Entrepreneurs

Introduction:

A key factor in the global economy, entrepreneurship promotes innovation, generates employment, and boosts GDP. Geographical limitations no longer limit businesses in today’s increasingly interconnected world, as global marketplaces present enormous opportunities for growth and expansion. However, entering foreign markets necessitates a thorough comprehension of the distinct financial environment that goes along with it. This essay delves into the subtleties of global entrepreneurial financing, emphasising important ideas, obstacles, and tactics that business owners should consider before taking their endeavours worldwide.

Key Concepts in International Entrepreneurial Finance:

1. Management of Foreign Exchange Risk:

Businesses that operate internationally are subject to exchange rate swings, which can have a substantial effect on earnings. To effectively manage foreign exchange risk, entrepreneurs should implement techniques like fixing prices in local currencies or utilising hedging products.

2. Cross-Border Finance and Investing:

Entrepreneurs who want to expand internationally can need money for acquisition, market entry, or expansion. They can access financing via several avenues, such as global crowdfunding platforms, angel investors, venture capital, and private equity.

3. Foreign Taxation and Adherence:

The complicated world of foreign taxation is one that entrepreneurs have to negotiate. To optimise tax efficiency and guarantee legal compliance this entails knowing tax treaties, transfer pricing laws, and compliance standards in various jurisdictions.

4. Disparities in Regulation and Culture:

Every nation has unique commercial practices, legal systems, and cultural standards. Entrepreneurs must modify their financial plans to conform to regulatory regulations and local norms.

Challenges in International Entrepreneurial Finance:

1. Political and Economic Instability:

Entrepreneurs who conduct business internationally may encounter political and economic unpredictability. Geopolitical tensions, currency devaluations, and changes in government policy can all have a big effect on how companies operate.

2. Legal and Regulatory Complexity:

It can take time to navigate the legal and regulatory systems of many nations. Contracts, intellectual property rights, international business law, and compliance standards must all be thoroughly understood by entrepreneurs.

3. Language and Cultural Barriers:

Working with stakeholders who come from different cultural backgrounds might present communication issues. Establishing trust and achieving successful agreements requires an understanding of local languages, cultures, and business etiquette.

4. Market analysis and Entry strategies:

To comprehend the market’s demand, rivalry, and consumer behaviour, entrepreneurs must perform in-depth market research. Success depends on selecting the best market entry plan, whether through partnerships, exports, or the creation of subsidiaries.

Techniques for Entrepreneurial Finance Success:

1. International Collaboration and Networking:

Developing a robust global network of connections and forming alliances with regional companies, trade groups, and governmental organisations can offer important perspectives and tools for managing overseas markets.

2. Risk Reduction and Diversification:

To spread risk, entrepreneurs should consider diversifying their businesses over several markets and sectors. It can lessen the effects of geopolitical events or economic downturns in a particular market.

3. Financial Planning that Adapts:

Entrepreneurs should design flexible financial strategies that adjust to changing market conditions, fluctuations in exchange rates, and changes in regulations. Making wise judgements requires regular economic monitoring and analysis.

Conclusion:

The dynamic field of international entrepreneurial finance has many prospects for development and expansion. But it also brings special difficulties that require forethought, flexibility, and a thorough comprehension of the world’s financial system. Proactively tackling these obstacles and employing appropriate tactics equips entrepreneurs with the necessary tools to prosper in the global economy and further their prosperity.

George Boole: Transforming the World of Modern Computing

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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George Boole: Transforming the World of Modern Computing

Modern Computing World

I would like to wish many Happy Returns to my “Old friend”, George Boole (1815-64). George was a self-taught Mathematician best known for developing a binary symbolic logical system called Boolean algebra/logic, which underpins all modern computing. Boole’s most famous book, “The Laws of Thought”, has been in my library for many years along with the masterpieces of Euclid (c300BC), The Elements, The Principia of Newton(1643-27), Disquisitiones Arithmeticae of Gauss (1777-55), Mechanique Celeste of Laplace (1749-27), the Mechanic Analytic of Lagrange (1736-18), as well a book on Brownian Motion written by A. Einstein (1879-55) which was given to me by the wife of my late PhD supervisor (may he rest in peace) after his passing.

My decision to acquire these immortal texts arose after reading the inspired words of the great Norwegian “Giant” Neils Henrik Abel (1802-29) when he uttered the words:

“It appears to me that to progress in Mathematics one must study the matters and not the pupils” – N. H. Abel.

A similar announcement was made by the so-called Newton of France, P. S. Laplace when he said:

Read Euler, read Euler; he is the Master of us all. P. S. Laplace.

Evolution of Logic and Mathematical Physics

Boole’s initial involvement in logic was prompted by a debate on quantification between Sir William Hamilton (1805-65), who supported the theory of “quantification of the predicate”, and Boole’s supporter, Augustus De Morgan (1806-71). Remaining with Hamilton, he was arguably Ireland’s greatest Mathematical Physicists with Schrodinger’s (1887-61) equation and Dirac’s (1902-84) equation both expressible in terms of the Hamiltonian (i.e., the sum of the kinetic and potential energies) the analogous difference in energies being of course the Lagrangian who gave us a complementary representation of mechanics to that of Newton. On the Broome bridge in Ireland during his honeymoon, Hamilton wrote down the fundamental multiplication rule of the quaternion variable that underpins modern computer graphics, particularly that i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = i.j.k= -1. I have been fortunate to discuss this and the quaternion group at UCL and Oxford during my career.

Origin of Boole’s Logic

It is perhaps not so well known that it was the polymath G. Leibniz (1614-76) who discovered/invented binary logic that we call today Boolean logic. During his own lifetime, his (Boole’s) work was not fully integrated into Mathematics due to the notation used. For example, Boole designated true as 1 and the and operator as +; thus, if all predicates A, B, C, D….. are true, then 1+1+1+1+1……= 1, which of course, looks bizarre.

Reflections on George

When I discuss these “Giants” and computer technologies, I often wonder what the world would be like today if Newton Euler or Archimedes (c287-12BCE) had a computer to work with and not tables of trig functions or of chords or logarithms. But that post would be for another day as, alas, I have run out of space again.

My meandering has meant that I have not discussed George as much as I would have liked sorry, “old friend”.

Fintech Revolution: Exploring the World of Financial Tech Ventures

Syeda Umme Eman
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Fintech Revolution: Exploring the World of Financial Tech Ventures

Introduction:

In recent years, the financial technology (fintech) industry has experienced a dramatic development. Fintech businesses have become significant game changers, transforming the financial services industry with technology, creativity, and user-first mentalities. This piece dives into the exciting world of fintech endeavours, examining major developments, their effects on the world economy, and their possibilities going forward.

Fintech Ventures’ Ascent:

Fintech initiatives comprise a diverse range of businesses that use technology to improve and develop financial services. These entrepreneurs are revolutionizing the financial management landscape by offering services ranging from peer-to-peer lending platforms and blockchain-powered solutions to payment processors and robo-advisors. The growing need for financial services that are more accessible, easy to use, and efficient is one of the factors propelling the fintech industry’s growth. Conventional financial organizations and banks frequently need help to keep up with the quickly advancing state of technology.

Fintech Innovation Domains:

1. Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies: 

Decentralized and secure record-keeping and transaction solutions are provided by blockchain technology, which is the foundation of cryptocurrencies such as Ethereum and Bitcoin. This technology can completely transform several other industries in addition to financial services. At the same time, companies like Coinbase and Binance have evolved into portals for people and organizations to purchase, sell, and exchange digital assets.

2. Digital Banking and Neobanks:

Neobanks, or digital-only banks, result from fintech and operate solely online, disregarding the necessity for physical branches. Digital banking is one of these innovations. From straightforward checking and savings accounts to more advanced financial management tools, these platforms provide various options. Leading this push are businesses like Chime, Revolut, and N26, which provide their clients with advantages like fee-free banking, tools for creating budgets, and easy international transfers.

3. Wealth Management and Robo-Advisors: 

FinTech companies have made investing and wealth management more accessible by introducing robo-advisors. Personalized investment advice and portfolio management are offered by these automated platforms using algorithms for a fraction of the price of traditional financial consultants. In this field, businesses like Wealthfront and Betterment have become more popular.

4. Peer-to-peer Lending and Crowdfunding: 

FinTech companies brought new financing methods that let people and small companies get loans from other people or a group of investors instead of traditional banks. LendingClub and Kickstarter are just two examples of the platforms that made finance more accessible. It has enabled people and companies to obtain finance through new channels.

5. Payments and Transfers: 

These were among the first and most important FinTech industries to experience upheaval. Companies such as Square, PayPal, and Stripe transformed online payments by making them faster, more secure, and accessible to a larger audience. Mobile payment apps like Cash App and Venmo have further changed how individuals transact money.

6. Regtech and Compliance Solutions: 

Financial institutions are navigating the complicated regulatory environment with solutions developed by fintech companies. It covers instruments for fraud protection, know-your-customer (KYC) procedures, and anti-money laundering (AML) compliance.

Impact and Benefits:

FinTech initiatives have improved the financial sector in several ways, including:

  • Enhanced Accessibility: FinTech has made financial services much more accessible, particularly for underprivileged groups and areas where traditional banking is scarce.
  • Reduced Costs: FinTech initiatives frequently provide more affordable solutions than traditional financial institutions since they do away with much of the overhead expenses related to brick-and-mortar businesses.
  • Enhanced Efficiency: Financial transactions and services are now faster and more efficient due to automation and streamlined procedures.
  • Innovation and Customization: FinTech companies are at the forefront of ongoing innovation, developing solutions specifically suited to the requirements of various market segments.

Obstacles and the Regulatory Environment:

Fintech companies have come a long way, but they still have a long way to go. These include obstacles related to regulations, cybersecurity risks, and data protection. Maintaining stability in the financial system and protecting consumers requires balancing innovation and regulation. Globally, regulatory organizations and governments are working hard to develop laws and regulations governing the fintech sector. While stricter laws are necessary to protect consumers, they can sometimes occasionally impede innovation. The task of determining the ideal regulatory framework is never-ending.

The Future of Fintech Ventures:

Future fintech activities are anticipated to grow and evolve. New technologies like artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and decentralized finance (DeFi) would have a substantial impact on the sector. Fintech startups and well-established financial institutions are increasingly collaborating. These collaborations take advantage of each other’s advantages and produce creative ideas that appeal to a wider range of people.

Conclusion:

Fintech companies have completely changed the financial services industry by providing cutting-edge solutions that meet the changing demands of both businesses and consumers. As technology develops, the fintech industry will expand, transforming how consumers interact with financial services and money. The FinTech ecosystem will become more and more important in determining how people and businesses around the world access finance in the future.

Compton Scattering: Interaction between Radiation and the Electrons

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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Compton Scattering: Interaction between Radiation and the Electrons

Arthur Compton (1892-62) discovered what we call today Compton Scattering (inelastic scattering) between radiation (electromagnetic waves) and an electron. The description of the effect follows closely with Einstein’s (1892-62) interpretation that radiation can be considered a photon with energy, E given by E=hf, where h = Planck’s constant and f = frequency (all in consistent units). So, when a photon collides with an electron, it uses up some of its energy so the colliding photon now has less power and using E=hf, the frequency must reduce (or the wavelength must increase since c=f.lamda), where c is the speed of light and lamba = wavelength of the light. This change can be measured, and for this work, Compton won the Nobel Prize in Physics in (1927).

The Compton Effect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-qDY4AYJRU

It is not too difficult to show the Compton effect using Special Relativistic considerations (and Planck’s fundamental formula) that:

\lambda' - \lambda = \frac{h}{mc}(1 - \cos \theta)

Where Delta(lambda) is the change in wavelength of the radiation before and after collision (which can be measured), m=mass of the electron, c = the speed of light, h=Planck’s constant (all known) and theta is the angle made between the incident and reflected ray, so a graph of Delta(lambda) versus cos(theta) will give a straight line with gradient –(h/mc) from which any one of these fundamental constants can be computed and compared with other experimentally determined values of them. This is common practice amongst us Physicists.

A Glimpse into the His Life

Compton’s work was a sensational discovery at the time, and he was also part of the Manhattan Project, where he was in charge of the project’s Metallurgical Laboratory. Staying with the Manhattan project, it would have been nice to digress here, but I will only mention that Fermi was there (and I am fortunate to teach Fermi problems at UCL) as was Feynman, who I have discussed on this platform on many occasions.
Arthur has some of the most inspiring quotes in the History of Physics. One that immediately springs to mind is:

Every great discovery I ever made, I gambled that the truth was there, and then I acted in faith until I could prove its existence. A. Compton.

Compton was God fearing and attributed many of his findings to him and frequently mentions him. In particular, he stated:

It is not difficult for me to have this faith, for it is incontrovertible that where there is a plan there is intelligence – an orderly, unfolding universe testifies to the truth of the most majestic statement ever uttered – ‘In the beginning, God.’ A. Compton.

Teaser of Summer School

I am hoping to deliver a Summer School in the future entitled:

Famous Physicists and God: The Atheists, The Agnostics, and the Theist, in which I will discuss more of my “old friends”, including Newton, Maxwell, Faraday, Salam, and Einstein. In which of the three groups the “Giants” will appear will only be revealed during the course.

Alas, I have run out of space again until next time. 

John Dalton: Ancient Greek Origins of the Modern Atomic Theory

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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John Dalton: Ancient Greek Origins of the Modern Atomic Theory

The immortal chemist John Dalton (1766-44) was pivotal in elucidating the theory of modern atomic theory. However, the idea of atoms can be traced back to the Greeks of antiquity, particularly Democritus (c460BC-c370BC). Aristotle later rejected these ideas, confirming what I once read about Aristotle written by a famous historian of Science: “Aristotle, no other man got so many things wrong”. In fact, during a History of Science Summer School that I delivered at Oxford University, this is one of my essay titles, which my students adore is “Aristotle, no other man got so many things wrong-Discuss”.

Daltonism in Color Blindness Research

Dalton’s Scientific contributions began soon after he took a teaching job in Manchester. He was elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society and promptly published a study on colour blindness, the first scientific paper on the subject. These studies led to this area of research being called Daltonism and who along with James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) were two “Giants” who suffered from this. Maxwell by the way was the first Physicist to unify two of the four fundamental forces of nature (electricity and magnetism). As a matter of interest one can arrive at the so-called Maxwell equations when one considers the motion of an electron using relativity.

Discoveries in Meteorology

Dalton was also passionate about meteorology, keeping detailed weather records daily from 1787 until he died in 1844. His careful study of the atmosphere led him to conclude that air is a mixture of various gases that exert pressure. Other “Giants” interested in studying meteorology include R. Descartes (1596-50) looking at his Discourse. Still, with a twist of fate here, Aristotle can redeem himself as he was one of the first of the “Giants” to attempt to understand meteorology.

From Atoms to Mountain Heights

Dalton also deduced that different elements have atoms of different sizes and masses—this was quite a deviation from the traditional views of the Greeks. He also proposed that chemistry involves the combination of indivisible atoms in simple, whole-number ratios to make chemical compounds. His atomic theory had flaws, yet it preceded direct evidence of atoms by about a century.

Perhaps another not-so-well-known fact about Dalton was that he predicted the heights of mountains using variations in pressure with height using a barometer.

Valuable Lesson from My Chemistry Teacher

I recall once being chastised by my A-level Chemistry teacher as a 17-year-old boy when I was advised of Dalton’s law of partial pressure, i.e., that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial forces of each constituent gas. The partial pressure is defined as the pressure each gas would exert if it alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the same temperature. I said, “Well, that is a bit obvious,” only for my teacher to growl at me. “So why didn’t you state it first, then?”

Alas, I have run out of space again.

Jöns Jacob Berzelius: Father of the Swedish Modern Chemistry

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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Jöns Jacob Berzelius: Father of the Swedish Modern Chemistry

Jöns Jacob Berzelius, known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, was a Swedish scientist who made great contributions to the field of chemistry. Berzelius was born in 1779 in Väversunda, Sweden. Berzelius (1779-48) studied medicine at Uppsala University, but he increasingly devoted himself to chemistry. His careful tabulation of relative atomic weights led him to propose a basic principle of chemistry: that inorganic chemical compounds are always composed of atoms combined in whole number amounts. Berzelius also discovered several elements, including thorium and cerium. In Sweden, his birthday is honoured as Happy Berzelius Day!

Founders of Modern Chemistry

Jacob is in august company as Chemists go as he is considered in the same breath and same calibre as the likes of Robert Boyle (1627-91), John Dalton(1766-44), and Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94), to be one of the founders of modern chemistry. Boyle is also credited with being one of the founders of the Scientific Method which I have discussed in previous posts. His law relating the pressure, p, of a gas to its volume, v, such pv=constant (for a fixed mass of gas keeping the temperature constant) commemorates his greatness, but further reading reveals that he was also in possession of what we call Charles’ (1746-32) law, even though it was known to Gay Lussac (1778-50) before him.

Boyle rejected the presidency of the Royal Society and like many “Giants” of the time, his academic and professional career was greatly influenced by his religious views, another such “Giant” who springs to mind when I think of Science and religion is Michael Faraday (1791-67) who uttered one of the most prophetic of all quotes in Science which I would like to relay. After introducing electricity to Prime Minister Gladstone (1809-98) and trying to explain it, the conversation between the two of them goes like this:

Gladstone: “But, after all, what use is it?”
Faraday: “Why, sir, I know not, but I am sure one day you will be able to tax it!”

Chemistry Pioneers

Berzelius is also placed alongside Dalton who reintroduced the theory of the atom (first proposed by Democritus (c370BC)) as well as Lavoisier who is considered today the father of analytical Chemistry. No doubt we have all heard the story of Lagrange (1736-13) lamenting at Lavoisier’s beheading during the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution (1789-99) because he got himself embroiled with tax collectors. Below is the quote:

“Il ne leur a fallu qu’un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable.” (“It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to reproduce it’s like”).J.L.Lagrange.


Berzelius’s Law

Returning to Berzelius, he made advances in areas of Chemistry, including chemical bonding (covalent, ionic) and stoichiometry (which is related to quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions) and his findings today are known as “The Law of Constant Proportions”.

I seem to have meandered off-piste again, and unfortunately, I have run out of space. Sorry, “old friend”.

Einstein’s Prediction of Gravitational Waves in Epic Black Holes

Dr Zeeshan Ali Syed
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Einstein’s Prediction of Gravitational Waves in Epic Black Holes

Einstein Predicted Gravitational Waves

On September 14, 2015, LIGO detected Gravitational waves, as predicted by Albert Einstein 100 years prior. These gravity waves (ripples in spacetime) are believed to result from a cataclysmic event calculated over a billion light years away. Physicists describe these waves as being produced in the final fraction of a second of a collision between two black holes merging into a single, more massive, spinning black hole. Some of the mass is converted into the energy of this gravitational wave given by E=mc².
 
Efforts to directly prove the existence of such waves had been ongoing for over fifty years and the waves are so small that Einstein doubted that they could ever be detected, but on Sept 14, 2015, LIGO made the first direct observation of gravitational waves with an instrument on Earth.

Unified Field Theory and the Forces of Nature

Albert made so many contributions to Modern Physics it was a shame that he parted company with the Quantum Physicists such as Planck (1858-47), Bohr (1885-62), Schrödinger (1887-61), Born(1882-70), Heisenberg (1901-76), Pauli (1900-58) etc in search of his Unified  Field Theory, which attempts to combine the four fundamental forces of nature: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force. They work over different ranges and have different strengths. Gravity is the weakest, but it has an infinite range. The strong force binds quarks together in clusters to make more familiar subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons. It also holds together the atomic nucleus. This force overcomes Coulomb’s repulsion.

The weak nuclear force acts inside of individual nucleons and has even shorter range than the strong force. It is the force that allows protons to turn into neutrons and vice versa. The electromagnetic force is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules and is mediated by photons. These two forces were elucidated by J. C. Maxwell (1831-79), who once worked at King’s College London, where I have been fortunate to study the gravitational force mediated by the so-called graviton. At present, we are still unable to reconcile the General Theory of Relativity (GR) with Quantum Physics at the instant of the Big Bang and thus GR is a classical theory.

The Sun’s Energy Production

Albert’s E=mc² explains how the sun sustains us. Inside our sun, atoms of hydrogen fuse (join) together to form helium, but the starting mass of hydrogen is greater than the mass of helium it produces, and this excess in mass is converted into energy according to E=mc², where c is the speed of light. Data suggests that the sun converts the equivalent of the mass of Mt Everest into helium every second, so we are talking about an immense amount of heat (stand in the mid-day sun in Saudi Arabia, and one can see how much power our star produces).
 
Not the best place to stop so abruptly, but I have run out of space again.

Until next time, “old friends”.

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